What are the people and places that help determine a persons view of the world referred to as?

Defining Personality

Personality is the unique combination of patterns that influence beliefs, thought, motivation, and emotion in a human beingness.

Learning Objectives

Trace the history of the field of personality psychology

Key Takeaways

Primal Points

• Personality is the combination of behavior, emotion, motivation, and thought patterns that define an individual. Personality psychology attempts to written report similarities and differences in these patterns among different people and groups.
• The written report of personality began with Hippocrates' theory of humorism, which argued that personality traits are based on four split temperaments associated with four fluids (" humors ") of the torso.
• Modern personality psychology is heavily influenced by these early on philosophical roots and attempts to identify which components—such as gratis will, heredity, or universality—are most influential in shaping man personality.
• There are many approaches to the mod psychological study of personality, including the psychodynamic, neo-Freudian, learning, humanistic, biological, trait, and cultural perspectives.

Key Terms

• sense of humour: In an old usage, one of four fluids that were believed to control the health and mood of the human body.
• psychodynamic: An arroyo to psychology that emphasizes the systematic study of the unconscious psychological forces that underlie man beliefs, feelings, and emotions and how these might chronicle to early feel.

An individual's personality is the combination of traits and patterns that influence their behavior, thought, motivation, and emotion. It drives individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific means; in essence, it is what makes each private unique. Over time, these patterns strongly influence personal expectations, perceptions, values, and attitudes.

Personality psychology is the study of human being personality and how it varies among individuals and populations. Personality has been studied for over 2000 years, beginning with Hippocrates in 370 BCE and spanning through modern theories such as the psychodynamic perspective and trait theory.

Early Philosophical Roots

The discussion "personality" originates from the Latin word persona, which means "mask." Personality every bit a field of study began with Hippocrates, a medico in ancient Greece, who theorized that personality traits and human behaviors are based on iv separate temperaments associated with four fluids of the trunk known as "humors". This theory, known as humorism, proposed that an individual's personality was the result of the remainder of these humors (yellow bile, blackness bile, phlegm, and blood), which corresponded to iv dispositions (grumpy, melancholy, calm, and cheer, respectively). While this theory is no longer held to be truthful, it paved the manner for further discoveries and insight into human personality.

Interestingly, several words in the English language linguistic communication that describe personality traits are rooted in humorism: "bilious" means bad-tempered, which is rooted in humorists' thought that yellow bile was associated with grumpiness; "melancholic" is from the Greek words for "black bile," again rooted in humorists' idea that black bile was associated with low. Similarly, "phlegmatic" describes a at-home personality and "sanguine" (from the Latin for "blood") a cheerful or playful one.

A great deal of modernistic personality psychology is influenced past, and attempts to answer, the following five philosophical questions about what really determines personality:

1. Freedom versus determinism: How much, if any, of an private's personality is under their conscious command?
2. Heredity versus surroundings: Do internal (biological) or external (environmental) influences play a larger role in determining personality?
3. Uniqueness versus universality: Are individuals more often than not more alike (like to each other) or different (unique) in nature?
4. Agile versus reactive: Is homo behavior passively shaped by environmental factors, or are humans more than agile in this function?
5. Optimistic versus pessimistic: Are humans integral in the irresolute of their own personalities (for instance, can they learn and modify through human interaction and intervention)?

Approaches to Studying Personality

Research into these five philosophical questions has branched into several dissimilar approaches to studying personality. The major theories include the psychodynamic, neo-Freudian, learning (or behaviorist), humanistic, biological, trait (or dispositional), and cultural perspectives.

• Psychodynamic theory, originating with Sigmund Freud, posits that human beliefs is the event of the interaction among various components of the listen (the id, ego, and superego) and that personality develops co-ordinate to a series of psychosexual developmental stages.

Sigmund Freud: Sigmund Freud advanced a psychodynamic view of homo personality that implicated the id, ego, and superego as the principal determinants of individual differences in personality.

• Neo-Freudian theorists, such as Adler, Erikson, Jung, and Horney, expanded on Freud's theories merely focused more than on the social environment and on the effects of culture on personality.
• Learning theories, such equally behaviorism, regard an individuals' deportment as ultimately being responses to external stimuli. Social learning theory believes that personality and behavior are adamant past an private's cognition about the globe around them.
• Humanistic theory argues that an individual'south subjective costless will is the most of import determinant of beliefs. Humanistic psychologists such every bit Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers believed that people strive to get self-actualized—the "best version" of themselves.
• Biological approaches focus on the role of genetics and the encephalon in shaping personality. Related to this, evolutionary theories explore how variation in individual personalities variance may be rooted in natural choice.
• Trait theorists believe personality tin can exist conceptualized as a set of mutual traits, or characteristic means of behaving, that every individual exhibits to some degree. In this view, such personality traits are different from person to person just within an individual are stable over time and place.

With any of these theories, it is important to keep in listen that the culture in which we live is one of the most important environmental factors that shapes our personalities. Western ideas most personality are non necessarily applicable to other cultures, and there is testify that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures.

Genetics, the Encephalon, and Personality

The biological perspective on personality emphasizes the influence of the encephalon and genetic factors on personality.

Learning Objectives

Discuss the relationship between genetics and personality development

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• The biological perspective on personality focuses on why or how personality traits manifest through biological science and investigates the links between personality, Deoxyribonucleic acid, and processes in the brain.
• In psychology, " temperament " refers to the personality tendencies that we bear witness at birth (and that are therefore biologically determined). After birth, environmental factors and maturation collaborate with a child'due south temperament to shape their personality.
• The field of behavioral genetics focuses on the human relationship betwixt genes and beliefs. Research from twin studies suggests that some aspects of our personalities are largely controlled past genetics.
• The biological approach to personality has also identified areas and pathways inside the brain, every bit well equally various hormones and neurotransmitters, that are associated with the development of personality.
• One of the first documented cases that demonstrated the link between personality and the brain was that of Phineas Cuff, who underwent a drastic personality change later on a brain injury.

Fundamental Terms

• temperament: A person's normal style of thinking, behaving, or reacting.
• heritability: The proportion of deviation among people that is attributed to genetics.

The Biological Perspective on Personality

The biological perspective on personality emphasizes the internal physiological and genetic factors that influence personality. It focuses on why or how personality traits manifest through biology and investigates the links between personality, DNA, and processes in the encephalon. This inquiry tin can include the investigation of anatomical, chemical, or genetic influences and is primarily achieved through correlating personality traits with scientific information from experimental methods such as encephalon imaging and molecular genetics.

Temperament

In psychology, "temperament" refers to the personality tendencies that we prove at birth (and that are therefore biologically adamant). For example, Thomas and Chess (1977) found that babies could be categorized into one of iii temperaments: piece of cake, difficult, or slow to warm up. After nascency, environmental factors (such equally family interactions) and maturation collaborate with a child'southward temperament to shape their personality (Carter et al., 2008).

Research suggests that there are two dimensions of our temperament that are important parts of our adult personality: reactivity and self-regulation (Rothbart, Ahadi, & Evans, 2000). Reactivity refers to how nosotros answer to new or challenging ecology stimuli; self-regulation refers to our ability to control that response (Rothbart & Derryberry, 1981; Rothbart, Sheese, Rueda, & Posner, 2011). For example, one person may immediately respond to a new stimulus with a high level of anxiety while another barely notices it.

Genetics and Personality

The field of behavioral genetics focuses on the human relationship between genes and behavior and has given psychologists a glimpse of the link between genetics and personality. A big part of the evidence nerveless linking genetics and the surround to personality comes from twin studies, which compare levels of similarity in personality between genetically identical twins.

Genetics: The expression of inherited genes plays a role in determining personality.

In the field of behavioral genetics, the Minnesota Written report of Twins Reared Autonomously—a well-known study of the genetic ground for personality—conducted research with twins from 1979 to 1999. In studying 350 pairs of twins, including pairs of identical and fraternal twins reared together and apart, researchers institute that identical twins, whether raised together or apart, have very similar personalities (Bouchard, 1994; Bouchard, Lykken, McGue, Segal, & Tellegen, 1990; Segal, 2012).

These findings suggest the heritability of some personality traits, implying that some aspects of our personalities are largely controlled by genetics. Multiple twin studies have constitute that identical twins practise have college correlations in personality traits than fraternal twins. While identical twins may have some similar personality traits, nevertheless, they even so have singled-out personalities, suggesting that genetics are not the only factor in determining personality. One report measuring genetic influence on twins in five different countries constitute that correlations for traits between identical twins were 0.50 (i.e., they had fifty% of traits in mutual), while for congenial twins were most 0.twenty (i.e., they had 20% of traits in mutual). These findings advise that heredity and environment interact to determine an individual's personality.

It'due south important to indicate out that traits are adamant not by a single cistron, but by a combination of many genes, and also by environmental factors that control whether certain genes are expressed. Many personality studies today investigate the activation and expression of genes and how they relate to personality. How DNA interacts with the surroundings determines what part of the Dna lawmaking is actually activated inside an individual—in other words, which genes will be expressed. These small changes in individuals' DNA help determine each person's uniqueness—their singled-out looks, abilities, brain functioning, and other characteristics that all work together to form a cohesive personality.

The Brain and Personality

The biological approach to personality has too identified areas and pathways within the brain that are associated with the evolution of personality. A number of theorists, such as Hans Eysenck, Gordon Allport, and Raymond Cattell, believe that personality traits can be traced dorsum to encephalon structures and neural mechanisms, such every bit dopamine and seratonin pathways. Researchers using a biological perspective will seek to empathize how hormones, neurotransmitters, and different areas of the brain all interact to affect personality.

Phineas Cuff: A Case Study

One of the starting time documented cases that demonstrated the link between personality and the brain was that of Phineas Gage. In 1858, Gage was working equally a blasting foreman for a railroad company. Due to a faulty blast, a railroad spike was blown through his caput; miraculously, he survived the accident.

Phineas Gage'southward skull: The case of Phineas Gage was 1 of the first indicators of a biological basis for personality.

The spike pierced Gage'southward frontal lobe, and Cuff experienced many subsequent changes in aspects of personality that we now know are associated with this area of the brain. The changes in Gage's personality after his brain injury spurred interest in the biological factors involved in personality and implicated the frontal lobe as an important area associated with college-order personality functions.

Strengths of the Biological Perspective

One strength of the biological perspective is its strict adherence to scientific methodology. All factors are reduced to quantifiable variables that can be reliably measured past personality trait models and questionnaires. The personality measures are standardized beyond measurements, and these measures of personality are very compatible with statistical analyses, providing an easily administered and measurable definition of personality.

This method tin can also exist deterministic, significant that some factors are identified every bit causal—i.e., certain brain structures or patterns may be identified every bit causing certain psychological outcomes. Because of this, the biological perspective tin exist useful in identifying causes of and effective treatments for personality and mood disorders. For example, identifying seratonin imbalance as a cause of depression led to the development of selective seratonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), which have been constitute to exist an constructive treatment for depression.

Limitations of the Biological Perspective

A limitation of this perspective is that information technology focuses almost exclusively on the nature side of the nature vs. nurture contend (the debate about whether genetics or environs are more influential in human development). Because of this exclusive focus, other factors that are integral to personality are non included. Hormones, neurotransmitters, and genetics are the fundamental factors in this focus; the effects of environmental and social factors, however, are ofttimes overlooked. Twin studies take shown that heritable factors are not the only predictor of personality or even diseases such as schizophrenia; the biological perspective does not fully accost not-heritable factors.

In improver, the correlational studies used for measuring normal personality traits are subjected to the aforementioned rules every bit normal correlational research: they cannot be used solitary to establish causation. But considering two factors are shown to be related does non hateful that ane causes the other. For example, if you take data that bear witness that as ice cream sales increase, the rate of drowning deaths also increases, you should non necessarily conclude that ice foam consumption causes drowning. In this case, more ice cream is sold during the hot summer months—the same time that people are more likely to go swimming. Therefore, the cause of the increases in both ice cream sales and drowning deaths is near likely the hot summertime weather.

That said, properly designed experimental studies tin can help scientists decide crusade-and-event relationships in order to develop treatment options for people with personality disorders.

Influences of Civilization and Gender on Personality

Both culture and gender are important factors that influence the development of personality.

Learning Objectives

Discuss the impact of culture and gender on personality development

Fundamental Takeaways

Key Points

• Personality is influenced past both biological and environmental factors; culture is one of the well-nigh important environmental factors that shapes personality.
• Considering cultural influences on personality is important considering Western ideas and theories are non necessarily applicative to other cultures. Research shows that the strength of personality traits varies greatly beyond cultures.
• People who live in individualist cultures tend to value independence, contest, and personal achievement, while people from collectivist cultures tend to value social harmony, respectfulness, and grouping needs.
• In much the same manner that cultural norms can influence personality and behavior, gender norms likewise emphasize unlike traits between dissimilar genders and thereby influence the evolution of personality.
• In the U.South., aggression and assertiveness are emphasized equally positive traits for males, while submissiveness and caretaking are emphasized for females.
• There are three approaches that can exist used to study personality in a cultural context: the cultural-comparative approach, the indigenous arroyo, and the combined approach, which incorporates elements of the commencement two approaches.

Key Terms

• norms: That which is regarded as normal or typical; a rule that is enforced by members of a customs.
• trait: An identifying characteristic, addiction or trend.
• civilization: The beliefs, values, behavior and material objects that constitute a people'southward style of life.
• gender: The socio-cultural miracle of the partitioning of people into various categories according to their biological sex, with each having associated roles, article of clothing, stereotypes, etc.; those with male sex characteristics are perceived as "boys" and "men", while those with female person sex characteristics are perceived as "girls" and "women. "

A person's culture is one of the most important environmental factors shaping their personality (Triandis & Suh, 2002). Personality psychologists are interested in understanding the part that culture plays in the development of personality. Research investigating the variations of personality traits beyond cultures suggests that at that place are both universal and culture-specific aspects that account for these variations.

Civilisation and Personality

The term culture refers to all of the behavior, customs, ideas, behaviors, and traditions of a item lodge that are passed through generations. Civilisation is transmitted to people through language every bit well as through the modeling of behavior, and information technology defines which traits and behaviors are considered important, desirable, or undesirable.

Within a civilisation there are norms and behavioral expectations. These cultural norms can dictate which personality traits are considered important. The researcher Gordon Allport considered culture to be an important influence on traits and defined common traits equally those that are recognized within a culture. These traits may vary from culture to civilisation based on differing values, needs, and beliefs. Positive and negative traits can be determined by cultural expectations: what is considered a positive trait in 1 culture may be considered negative in some other, thus resulting in different expressions of personality across cultures.

Considering cultural influences on personality is important considering Western ideas and theories are not necessarily applicative to other cultures (Benet-Martinez & Oishi, 2008). There is a great deal of evidence that the forcefulness of personality traits varies across cultures, and this is especially truthful when comparing individualist cultures (such as European, North American, and Australian cultures) and collectivist cultures (such as Asian, African, and South American cultures). People who alive in individualist cultures tend to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are important. In contrast, people who alive in collectivist cultures tend to value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. These values influence personality in different but substantial ways; for example, Yang (2006) found that people in individualist cultures displayed more personally-oriented personality traits, whereas people in collectivist cultures displayed more than socially-oriented personality traits.

Gender and Personality

In much the aforementioned way that cultural norms tin influence personality and behavior, gender norms (the behaviors that males and females are expected to conform to in a given society) tin can also influence personality by emphasizing different traits between different genders.

Ideas of appropriate beliefs for each gender (masculine and feminine) vary amidst cultures and tend to alter over fourth dimension. For example, assailment and assertiveness have historically been emphasized as positive masculine personality traits in the Usa. Meanwhile, submissiveness and caretaking accept historically been held as ideal feminine traits. While many gender roles remain the same, others modify over time. In 1938, for example, but ane out of v Americans agreed that a married woman should earn money in industry and business. By 1996, however, 4 out of 5 Americans approved of women working in these fields. This type of attitude change has been accompanied by behavioral shifts that coincide with changes in trait expectations and shifts in personal identity for men and women.

Influence of gender roles on personality expression: Gender roles can determine which traits are considered positive or desirable. These traits vary from civilisation to culture.

Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context

There are iii approaches that can exist used to report personality in a cultural context: the cultural-comparative approach, the ethnic approach, and the combined approach, which incorporates elements of the first two approaches.

• The cultural-comparative arroyo seeks to examination Western ideas about personality in other cultures to decide whether they can exist generalized and if they have cultural validity (Cheung van de Vijver, & Leong, 2011). For example, researchers used the cultural-comparative approach to test the universality of McCrae and Costa's 5 Factor Model. They found applicability in numerous cultures around the world, with the Large 5 traits beingness stable in many cultures (McCrae & Costa, 1997; McCrae et al., 2005).
• The indigenous arroyo came most in reaction to the dominance of Western approaches to the study of personality in not-Western settings (Cheung et al., 2011). Because Western-based personality assessments cannot fully capture the personality constructs of other cultures, the indigenous model has led to the development of personality assessment instruments that are based on constructs relevant to the culture beingness studied (Cheung et al., 2011).
• The third approach to cantankerous-cultural studies of personality is the combined approach, which serves as a bridge betwixt Western and indigenous psychology as a manner of understanding both universal and cultural variations in personality (Cheung et al., 2011).

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/introduction-to-personality/

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